Understanding how we learn is indeed important for effective counselling. Bransford et al. (2000) note that formal education is not necessarily the most effective learning environment. One particular line that stood out for me was “scholars have worried that formal educational environments have been better at selecting talent than developing it” (p.5). I believe this is true for many counsellors-in-training who are denied admittance to graduate programs in counselling. Individuals who may not have the high GPA required for acceptance to these competitive programs could still be incredibly talented counsellors.
How able a person is to understand and regurgitate a textbook's material does not prove their potential for counselling. Some people are simply experiential learners, and do their best learning in the outside world, rather than the classroom.
How able a person is to understand and regurgitate a textbook's material does not prove their potential for counselling. Some people are simply experiential learners, and do their best learning in the outside world, rather than the classroom.
A major highlight for me in our Theories of Learning course was the usefulness of the executive function of the brain. Executive function can be defined as “the high level cognitive processes that facilitate new ways of behaving, and optimize one’s approach to unfamiliar circumstances” (Gilbert & Burgess, 2008, p.R110). Overall, these tasks allow us to live independent and purposeful lives (Gilbert & Burgess, 2008). Examples include the ability to sustain attention, effectively use working memory, and have successful social interactions (Lewis & Carpendale, 2009).
For our first assignment in the course, I wrote a paper on the usefulness of counsellors' understanding of the executive function. I looked specifically at clients with PTSD. Here are my conclusions from this paper:
For our first assignment in the course, I wrote a paper on the usefulness of counsellors' understanding of the executive function. I looked specifically at clients with PTSD. Here are my conclusions from this paper:
"One way that counsellors can help clients with executive function (E.F.) deficits is to support their ability to cope with their PTSD symptoms. In a study on coping capabilities in maltreated children, it was found that self-esteem and self-reliance were important for coping (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2009). Counsellors could support clients to build their self-esteem, and well as their self-reliance using cognitive-based therapies such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (James et al., 2008). Other studies have found that methods such as attentional training have been effective in reducing anxiety in subjects (Aupperle et al., 2012). Attention modification interventions encourage clients to move their attention away from threatening, anxiety producing stimuli, towards neutral stimuli (Rozenman et al., 2011). James et al. (2008) suggest that counsellors need to be more aware of cognitive
difficulties associated with affective disorders, and therefore should tailor their approach to these clients accordingly. The authors of this study suggest such strategies as reducing the complexity of material used in therapy, ensuring the agenda is meaningful for the client, and preventing overloading of the client’s working memory. These approaches aim to address the deficits of E.F. the client is experiencing, and thus allow greater benefit from therapy."
An important learning from this course for me was the relationship between attention and panic disorder. The paper I wrote, "Panic Disorder and Attentional Bias: A Cognitive Approach" helped me to better understand why panic disorder can be overwhelming for the individual. This understanding has helped me in my work with anxious clients, as I have been able to provide them with psycho-education around anxiety and what is happening in their body. Below is an excerpt from this paper:
"Attention has been found to play a key role in cognitive theories of panic disorder (De Cort, Hermans, Spruyt, Griez and Schruers, 2008). It is theorized that individuals with PD mistake certain somatic sensations as evidence “of an impending disaster” (De Cort et al., 2008, p. 951). An example of this could be mistaking the quickening of the pulse and corresponding light-headedness for the feeling that one is about to faint. The focused attention on these bodily sensations can make them seem more severe than they actually are, contributing to further anxiety. This increased conscious attention is also known as ‘body vigilance’ (Schmidt et al., 1997).
Although normal bodily awareness is important for crucial survival behaviours, such as the avoidance of serious danger, it can become problematic when the awareness takes on an increased importance, and creates psychological conceptualizations
of panic sensations (Schmidt et al., 1997). According to cognitive theories of body vigilance in panic disorder, the individual experiences false alarms of panic to a perceived threat, and this creates the anticipation of a panic attack. Once the attentional focus is shifted to bodily sensations, any minute somatic responses may lead to further panic sensations (Barlow, 1988). For
example, the individual may become aware of a quickening of the pulse, and believe that a full-blown panic attack is about to follow. Pennebaker, Gonder-Frederick, Cox and Hoover (1985) found that increased attention on bodily sensations enhances the likelihood of the perception of physiological changes. When there is an increased perception of threat, as often occurs in panic
disorder, it can lead to greater autonomic arousal, and creates a cycle of panic reactions. Therefore, attention plays a major role in panic disorder, because the more attention is focused on panic related symptoms, the more emphasized these symptoms become, and the more likely a panic attack will occur (Schmidt et al. 1997). "
References:
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349.
Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology,
62(2), 686-694. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008
Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). Learning: From speculation to science. In How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school
(pp. 3-27). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.)
Beck, A. T, Sokol, L., Clark, D. A., Berchick, R., & Wright, F. (1992). A crossover study of focused cognitive therapy for panic disorder. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 149(6), 778 -783. Retrieved online from: http://psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=168682.
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2009). Adaptive coping under conditions of extreme stress: Multilevel influences on the determinants of resilience in maltreated children. In E. A. Skinner & M. J. Zimmer-Gembeck (Eds.), Coping and the development of regulation. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 124, 47–59. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
De Cort, K., Hermans, D., Spruyt, A., Griez, E. & Schruers, K. (2008). A specific attentional bias in panic disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 25(11), 951-955.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20376
DiFilippo J.M. & Overholser, J.C. (1999). Cognitive-behavioural treatment of panic disorder: Confronting situational precipitants. Journal
of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 29(2), 99-113. doi: 10.1023/A:1021952614479.
Gilbert, S. J., & Burgess, P. W. (2008). Executive function. Current Biology, 18(3), R110-R114. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.12.014.
Herman, J. (1997). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence- from domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic Books.
James, I. A., Reichelt, F. K., Carlsonn, P., & McAnaney, A. (2008). Cognitive behavior therapy and executive functioning in depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 22(3), 210-218. doi:10.1891/0889-8391.22.3.210
Lewis, C., & Carpendale, J. I. M. (2009). Introduction: Links between social interaction and executive function. In C. Lewis& J. I. M. Carpendale (Eds.), Social
interaction and the development of executive function. New Directions in Child and Adolescent Development, 123, 1–15.
Schmidt, N.B., Lerew, D.R. & Trakowski, J.H. (1997). Body vigilance in panic disorder: Evaluating attention to bodily perturbations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 65(2), 214-220. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.65.2.214.
Wiener, C., Perloe, A., Whitton, S. & Pincus, D. (2011). Attentional bias in adolescents with panic disorder: Changes over an 8-day intensive treatment
program. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 40(2), 193-204. doi:10.1017/S1352465811000580
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423349.
Aupperle, R. L., Melrose, A. J., Stein, M. B., & Paulus, M. P. (2012). Executive function and PTSD: Disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology,
62(2), 686-694. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008
Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiety and its disorders. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Bransford, J., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). Learning: From speculation to science. In How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school
(pp. 3-27). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.)
Beck, A. T, Sokol, L., Clark, D. A., Berchick, R., & Wright, F. (1992). A crossover study of focused cognitive therapy for panic disorder. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 149(6), 778 -783. Retrieved online from: http://psychiatryonline.org/article.aspx?articleid=168682.
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2009). Adaptive coping under conditions of extreme stress: Multilevel influences on the determinants of resilience in maltreated children. In E. A. Skinner & M. J. Zimmer-Gembeck (Eds.), Coping and the development of regulation. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 124, 47–59. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass.
De Cort, K., Hermans, D., Spruyt, A., Griez, E. & Schruers, K. (2008). A specific attentional bias in panic disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 25(11), 951-955.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/da.20376
DiFilippo J.M. & Overholser, J.C. (1999). Cognitive-behavioural treatment of panic disorder: Confronting situational precipitants. Journal
of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 29(2), 99-113. doi: 10.1023/A:1021952614479.
Gilbert, S. J., & Burgess, P. W. (2008). Executive function. Current Biology, 18(3), R110-R114. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.12.014.
Herman, J. (1997). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence- from domestic abuse to political terror. New York: Basic Books.
James, I. A., Reichelt, F. K., Carlsonn, P., & McAnaney, A. (2008). Cognitive behavior therapy and executive functioning in depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 22(3), 210-218. doi:10.1891/0889-8391.22.3.210
Lewis, C., & Carpendale, J. I. M. (2009). Introduction: Links between social interaction and executive function. In C. Lewis& J. I. M. Carpendale (Eds.), Social
interaction and the development of executive function. New Directions in Child and Adolescent Development, 123, 1–15.
Schmidt, N.B., Lerew, D.R. & Trakowski, J.H. (1997). Body vigilance in panic disorder: Evaluating attention to bodily perturbations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 65(2), 214-220. doi:10.1037//0022-006X.65.2.214.
Wiener, C., Perloe, A., Whitton, S. & Pincus, D. (2011). Attentional bias in adolescents with panic disorder: Changes over an 8-day intensive treatment
program. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 40(2), 193-204. doi:10.1017/S1352465811000580